Contributions of sheep farming to the Welsh Economy

If I were to sum up my previous post in a sentence it would be this:

The practice of maintaining large areas of agricultural landscape in Europe through subsidies is misguided. It has lead to the ruin of ecosystems and a warped public view of what the countryside should look like. Rewilding and a return to a more natural state would benefit everyone.

A couple of statistics I have just read in Monbiot (2013) add weight to this assertion; according to the UK national ecosystem assessment farming in Wales contributes £400 million a year to the national economy.  Walking contributes £500 million and wildlife based activity* £1'900 million. 

*includes conservation, wildlife tourism, academic and commercial research and other jobs that would not exist were it not for wildlife.

References

Monbiot, G. (2013) "Feral, rewilding the land, seas and human life". Penguin. London. pp-160

Rewilding in Europe: Lessons for the UK?

The decline of wilderness

Deforestation is an environmental concept that every secondary school student is familiar with. Many scenarios project continuing deforestation in tropical ecosystems however the situation in Europe is in fact the opposite, Pereira et al. (2010). The amount of forest and scrub land in Europe is now increasing.

Before deforestation the pre-neolithic landscape of Europe was a mosaic of forest, grasslands and scrub maintained by herbivorous mega fauna and forest fires. Then Homo sapiens got involved. The rise of classical civilizations accelerated early clearings and this continued into the Middle Ages, with an estimated 50-70% of cover lost in this time-frame, Navarro and Pereira, (2012). During this time species abundance, diversity and range were all significantly reduced. The mosaic of wilderness was replaced with an urbanized, managed, agricultural landscape. However once this stage had been reached, European landscapes have continued to change.

The decline of agriculture

Traditional agricultural landscapes are significant in European environmental policy. The European Habitats Directive lists 231 habitat types, 41 of which are associated with low intensity agricultural management e.g. hay meadows, Halada et al. (2011). However since the mid 20th century the agricultural landscape of Europe has been in flux. Since 1961 there has been a 17% reduction in the rural population of Europe and the number of livestock declined by 25% between 1990 and 2010.

Marginal agricultural areas have been subject to a spiral of decline throughout the 20th century and arguably longer. Land of low productivity, competition from foreign markets and better opportunities in urban areas cause depopulation. With this comes a dereliction of services and ultimately deprivation. As long as the young continue to migrate to cities the populations of marginal agricultural areas will continue to age and decline, Keenleyside and Tucker, (2010).

European policy has been to try and maintain these landscapes and reverse or halt the decline in population through subsidies. The common agricultural policy designates these marginal areas as 'less favourable areas' (LFAs). In 1975 33% of agricultural land in the EU was categorised as an LFA. In 2005 this had increased to 50%. 12.6 billion euros of payments were made to farmers in LFAs between 2007-2013, propping up an unprofitable industry with the goal of maintaining the cultural landscape. The question I wish to address is could this money be better spent?

Rewilding, an alternative...

Rewilding is the passive management of ecological succession. Succession on abandoned farmland will lead to scrub and in most cases, when left long enough, woodland. The map below is from Navarro and Pereira (2012) and shows the hotspots of abandonment and rewilding (areas that are projected to rewild or become aforested by 2030). A saddening lack of green on the UK.

But what are the benefits of rewilding and can the significant challenges be overcome? As discussed in a previous post one argument against rewilding is based on the IDH, however I feel that this hypothesis is flawed and empirical evidence supports this view. There is also significant opposition from farmers who worry about predation of their livestock by large carnivores, between 1992 and 1998 an average 2 million euros a year was spent compensating farmers. This figure will be higher now and will likely increase as more areas rewild. Also since the 1960s the abundance and distribution of large European carnivores has increased, Enserink and Vogel (2006), good news for some but not all.

I think the best argument for rewilding and the best chance of convincing sceptics is based on considering the ecosystem services such a process will provide. The supporting service of biodiversity will increase, allowing for a range of benefits in regulating and cultural services. I have already highlighted the increase in large carnivores but re-vegetation also increases soil moisture and biomass content increasing the numbers of worms and insects. This has positive impacts on bird abundance and diversity, Russo (2006). Carbon sequestration is provided by the increase in vegetation helping mitigate climate change and soil nutrients are restored. Re-vegetated land provides better protection against flooding and the reintroduction of keystone species has ecosystem wide benefits (see the example of the wolf here).

The rewilded landscapes will provide opportunities for recreation and tourism, reinvigorating deprived areas and providing sustainable, meaningful employment. I am convinced as a species we have lost our fundamental connection to, and appreciation of, nature and believe that the restoration of large areas to 'wild' land will go a long way to reconnecting us. Also because rewilding is so passive, once the initial recovery has begun, the tangible and more spiritual benefits can be attained for limited levels of investment.

The UK is a crowded little island and rewilding on the scale expected in parts of Europe will never be realistic, but it should seriously be considered for large parts of our landscape. Imagine a return of the Caledonian forest across huge areas of the Highlands or Oak and mixed woodland carpeting the moors and heaths of South West England and the North. I wholeheartedly believe our country would be a better place for it.

References

Enserink, M. and Vogel, G. (2006) "The carnivore comeback." Science. 314: 746-749

Halada, L. Evans, D. Romao, C. and Petersen, J-E. (2011) "Which habitats of European importance depend on agricultural practices?". Biodiversity and Conservation. 20 (11): 2365-78.

Keenleyside C. and Tucker G. (2010) "Farmland abandonment in the EU: an assessment of trends and prospects. London. WWF and IEEP. 97pp.

Navarro, L. and Pereira, M. (2012) "Rewilding Abandoned Landscapes in Europe". Ecosystems. 15 900-912

Pereira, HM., Leadley, PW., Proenca, V., Alkemade, R., Scharlemann, JPW., Fernandez-Manjarres, FP., Araujo, MB., Balvanera, P., Biggs, R., Cheung, WWL., Chini, L., Cooper, HD., Gilman, E., Guenette, S., Hurtt GC., Huntingdon, HP., Mace, GM., Oberdorff, T., Revenga, C., Rodrigues, P., Scholes, R., Sumaila, UR. and Walpole, M. (2010) "Scenarios for global biodiversity in the 21st century" Science. 330 1496-501. 

Russo, D. (2006) "Effects of land abandonment on animal species in Europe: conservation and management implications" Integrated assessment of vulnerable ecosystems under global change in the EU. Project report.

The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH)

I have made a start on some reading ahead of starting my MSc in September. I am interested in rewilding as an approach to conservation ecology. A paradigm I am currently exploring is the potential for rewilding to successfully manage abandoned farmland in Europe (blog to follow soon) and a concept that crops up in this reading is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). I felt this interesting concept deserved its own post to discuss it ahead of a longer post on rewilding in Europe to follow.

Policy makers and researchers who argue that rewilding will have negative impacts on biodiversity cite the IDH in support of their arguments, Navarro and Pereira, (2012). The theory states that biological diversity is highest in extensively managed ecosystems where disturbance factors are moderate, Wilkinson (1999).

Essentially ecosystems are prevented from reaching communities at both ends of their succession scale (plagioclimax) therefore limiting interspecific competition and promoting biodiversity. The organisms that outcompete at the start and end of succession; pioneers and climax species, cannot dominate the system so diversity is higher. Ecologists who have supported IDH and carried out empirical tests predicted a humped relationship between species diversity and disturbance factors (Figure 1). In some studies such a relationship was indeed observed.

Figure 1 - Humped relationship between diversity and disturbance

However there is criticism of IDH. Fox (2013) states that in the vast majority of empirical cases the relationship predicted in figure 1 is not observed. It is argued that abundance of species will be impacted by moderate disturbance but not the mechanisms of interaction between species. If anything the levels of competition required between species in order to impact their populations will be reduced as a result of smaller populations and less genetic diversity, ultimately impacting communities capacity to adapt.


References

Fox, J. (2013) "The intermediate disturbance hypothesis should be abandoned". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 28 (2) 86-92

Navarro, L. and Pereira, M. (2012) "Rewilding Abandoned Landscapes in Europe". Ecosystems. 15 900-912

Wilkinson, DM. (1999) "The disturbing history of intermediate disturbance". Oikos. 84 145-147.

Trees for Life, rewilding and hope for the future

I have previously blogged about 'rewilding'. 'Rewilding' is the large scale restoration of ecosystems and natural processes driven in part by the reintroduction of missing species. It takes a holistic view of ecosystem management and an appreciation that for ecosystems to thrive natural processes such as predation and grazing must be allowed to occur without interference. Think of it as re-establishing what was lost and then leaving nature to get on with things, essentially hitting the reset button on habitats that have been degraded and fragmented by human processes. Rewilding as a paradigm has been gaining support in Europe for the past 7 years or so (http://www.rewildingeurope.com/).

The largest rewilding effort in the UK is fronted by the Trees for Life charity, co-ordinated by Alan Watson Featherstone (it is well worth following his blog). Following the last glacial maximum at the beginning of the Holocene and the cooler climate that followed Scots Pine was the most dominant species to recolonise the land left by the retreating glaciers, well adapted to the cool, dry conditions of the time.

This formed the foundation of the Caledonian forest, a complex, multi layered habitat of Pine, Rowan, Juniper, Aspen and Oak. Growing on and beneath these majestic species are a multitude of lichens and mosses. The Caledonian forest supported boar, wolves, lynx, pine marten, red squirrels, deer, wildcats and a multitude of bird and insect species. It is sometimes referred to as Britain's rain forest. Through the Holocene the climate continued to warm and Oak woodland became the climax habitat of much of the UK. The Caledonian forest retreated north occupying the glens of the Scottish Highlands. 2000 years BP the Caledonian forest of the Highlands was the Western most bastion of the mighty Boreal forest. Since then continued warming, deforestation and overgrazing has reduced the Caledonian forest to a shadow of its former self.

The Scottish Crossbill - Just one of the amazing species supported by Caledonian Forest

In 2008 Trees for Life purchased the Dundreggan estate, a 10'000 acre site of wilderness. However since the early 90s volunteers have worked towards their mission statement of restoring the Caledonian forest to the Scottish Highlands.

The core area of Trees for Life's work

The principle is that by creating a corridor of suitable habitat between the fragmented remnants of Caledonian forest and reintroducing lost species the ecosystem's natural processes will then begin to dominate and self regulate. This presentation contains good information on some of the methods involved and also the very real impacts. I will continue to blog about the ecology and progress of Trees for life. To finish I will leave you with a vision for the future of the Highlands.

Rewilding - An approach to ecosystem management

'Rewilding' is an ecological concept that is relatively new to me and something that I am increasingly interested in. 'Rewilding' is the large scale restoration of ecosystems and natural processes driven in part by the reintroduction of missing species. Between now and beginning my Master's in September I hope to explore this concept further.

Moorhouse and Sandom (2015) present the example of the water vole, Arvicola amphibius, to outline various approaches to conservation. The water vole thrived in Britain since the start of the Holocene but

"since the 1930s the national population has been reduced to (much) less than 2% of its original size" - (Moorhouse and Sandom, 2015, p.45).

Arvicola amphibius - The Water Vole (take from http://www.arkive.org/water-vole/arvicola-terrestris/)

This rapid reduction in population size has mainly been a result of habitat loss due to agriculture and predation by the American mink, an introduced species.

3 approaches to managing the water vole present themselves. Option 1 would be to do nothing, allowing populations to become restricted to the few wetlands remaining that can protect them from predation. Option 2 would be to control mink populations coupled with reintroduction (the approach that Britain has taken). Finally option 3 would be to completely eradicate the American mink, restoration of all lost habitats and targeted water vole reintroductions.

Moorhouse and Sandom (2015) go on to say that approaches such as option 3 will always mean that the natural state has been irrevocably lost and that the best we can do is create a new state that is more functionally natural. They raise an interesting question on where the line can be drawn with regard to Britain's 'natural species'.

Rather than such a species orientated approach 'rewilding' asks what natural processes (migration, predation, flood prevention etc.) have been lost and whether this has been the result of human intervention. Moorhouse and Sandom (2015) outline the reintroduction of a top predator, the wolf, as an example of how this concept may work. 

Step 1 - Reintroduce top predator

Step 2 - Herbivory reduced

Step 3 - Increased woodland regeneration

Step 4 - Improved beaver habitat

Step 5 - Increased wetland availability

Step 6 - Improved water vole habitat

Of course there will be risks and objections to such schemes and natural feedback mechanisms will never allow such a smooth transition between steps but as a holistic approach to ecosystem conservation rewilding is one that intrigues me. I have ordered 'Feral' by George Monbiot and will continue to explore rewilding as an approach to conservation.

Some links to get me started:

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/19/-sp-rewilding-large-species-britain-wolves-bears
http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/rewilding
http://www.monbiot.com/2013/05/27/a-manifesto-for-rewilding-the-world/
http://www.rewildingeurope.com/

References

Moorhouse, T.P. and Sandom, C.J. (2015) Conservation and the problem with 'natural' - does rewilding hold the answer? Geography. 100 (1), p.45-50.