DIY and Newbuild Homes - Urban Wildlife's worst nightmare

Urban wildlife has taken a bit of a bashing in recent years. One of my favourite species is the House Sparrow, in the mid 20th century every street in every town in Britain would have a chirpy little flock of these fellas. They are incredibly social birds and have a great character, like little Jack Russell's with wings and beaks!

A House Sparrow on the roof of my garage in Penge, South East London

But since 1967 their numbers have declined by 67%. Ornithologists from the BTO have suggested a couple of reasons for this. Firstly lots of gardens in towns have been either decked, paved, graveled or had a whopping great big trampoline put in them, lawns are obsessively mown and weeds removed with impunity. This removes both habitat for nesting and also a source of seeds and insects. Secondly modern homes don't have the little nooks and crannies that older homes have in abundance, again another important source of nesting habitat for the House Sparrow. The combination of both of these factors is what has silenced that happy little 'churp' from our streets. I am fortunate; I live in the Alexandra Cottages in Penge. These are a series of terraced social housing streets constructed as a bit of a social experiment in the early 19th Century, There are tons of little hidy holes for the sparrows to flit about in, trees and a mature hedge. Consequently there is a relatively large population here.

However conservation of species, particularly in urban settings, is about doing your little bit to help. If we all did so then many of our species (the Hedgehog anyone?) would be in much better shape than they currently are. With that in mind this Spring and Summer I have engaged in a little rewilding project of my own! Braving the passive aggressive distaste of the Alexandra residents association I have left my lawn unmown and my borders relatively weedy. Immediately I noticed more bees, bugs and ants in the garden. I have had a feeder up for the birds for a while but I now also see them feeding in my 'meadow'. A Lapwing will land soon, just you see.

My wildflower meadow, just one of the mosaic of habitats present in the Penge Nature Reserve

There is a little ecosystem in my yard and front garden which is really thriving. The House Sparrows feed from my feeder and lawn, Wood Pigeons and Collared Doves mop up after them and Blue Tits and Goldfinches, although not brash enough to visit my feeder which is very close to the back door, flit among the trees and border picking off insects. I have Blackbirds on my roof and in my garden and even a little mouse (that Inna and I have dubbed Charlie) picks up the husks and bits the birds don't want.  One of the most spectacular sights are the Swifts, feeding hundreds of feet above the houses in long graceful flights. These are the Spitfires of the bird world and are another species that is struggling due to the modernisation of our homes. Although I have no way of knowing it I like to think that some of the insects they are feeding on up there were hatched in my weedy border and long grass!

Penge national nature reserve, free to visit but please leave a donation.

Contributions of sheep farming to the Welsh Economy

If I were to sum up my previous post in a sentence it would be this:

The practice of maintaining large areas of agricultural landscape in Europe through subsidies is misguided. It has lead to the ruin of ecosystems and a warped public view of what the countryside should look like. Rewilding and a return to a more natural state would benefit everyone.

A couple of statistics I have just read in Monbiot (2013) add weight to this assertion; according to the UK national ecosystem assessment farming in Wales contributes £400 million a year to the national economy.  Walking contributes £500 million and wildlife based activity* £1'900 million. 

*includes conservation, wildlife tourism, academic and commercial research and other jobs that would not exist were it not for wildlife.

References

Monbiot, G. (2013) "Feral, rewilding the land, seas and human life". Penguin. London. pp-160

Rewilding in Europe: Lessons for the UK?

The decline of wilderness

Deforestation is an environmental concept that every secondary school student is familiar with. Many scenarios project continuing deforestation in tropical ecosystems however the situation in Europe is in fact the opposite, Pereira et al. (2010). The amount of forest and scrub land in Europe is now increasing.

Before deforestation the pre-neolithic landscape of Europe was a mosaic of forest, grasslands and scrub maintained by herbivorous mega fauna and forest fires. Then Homo sapiens got involved. The rise of classical civilizations accelerated early clearings and this continued into the Middle Ages, with an estimated 50-70% of cover lost in this time-frame, Navarro and Pereira, (2012). During this time species abundance, diversity and range were all significantly reduced. The mosaic of wilderness was replaced with an urbanized, managed, agricultural landscape. However once this stage had been reached, European landscapes have continued to change.

The decline of agriculture

Traditional agricultural landscapes are significant in European environmental policy. The European Habitats Directive lists 231 habitat types, 41 of which are associated with low intensity agricultural management e.g. hay meadows, Halada et al. (2011). However since the mid 20th century the agricultural landscape of Europe has been in flux. Since 1961 there has been a 17% reduction in the rural population of Europe and the number of livestock declined by 25% between 1990 and 2010.

Marginal agricultural areas have been subject to a spiral of decline throughout the 20th century and arguably longer. Land of low productivity, competition from foreign markets and better opportunities in urban areas cause depopulation. With this comes a dereliction of services and ultimately deprivation. As long as the young continue to migrate to cities the populations of marginal agricultural areas will continue to age and decline, Keenleyside and Tucker, (2010).

European policy has been to try and maintain these landscapes and reverse or halt the decline in population through subsidies. The common agricultural policy designates these marginal areas as 'less favourable areas' (LFAs). In 1975 33% of agricultural land in the EU was categorised as an LFA. In 2005 this had increased to 50%. 12.6 billion euros of payments were made to farmers in LFAs between 2007-2013, propping up an unprofitable industry with the goal of maintaining the cultural landscape. The question I wish to address is could this money be better spent?

Rewilding, an alternative...

Rewilding is the passive management of ecological succession. Succession on abandoned farmland will lead to scrub and in most cases, when left long enough, woodland. The map below is from Navarro and Pereira (2012) and shows the hotspots of abandonment and rewilding (areas that are projected to rewild or become aforested by 2030). A saddening lack of green on the UK.

But what are the benefits of rewilding and can the significant challenges be overcome? As discussed in a previous post one argument against rewilding is based on the IDH, however I feel that this hypothesis is flawed and empirical evidence supports this view. There is also significant opposition from farmers who worry about predation of their livestock by large carnivores, between 1992 and 1998 an average 2 million euros a year was spent compensating farmers. This figure will be higher now and will likely increase as more areas rewild. Also since the 1960s the abundance and distribution of large European carnivores has increased, Enserink and Vogel (2006), good news for some but not all.

I think the best argument for rewilding and the best chance of convincing sceptics is based on considering the ecosystem services such a process will provide. The supporting service of biodiversity will increase, allowing for a range of benefits in regulating and cultural services. I have already highlighted the increase in large carnivores but re-vegetation also increases soil moisture and biomass content increasing the numbers of worms and insects. This has positive impacts on bird abundance and diversity, Russo (2006). Carbon sequestration is provided by the increase in vegetation helping mitigate climate change and soil nutrients are restored. Re-vegetated land provides better protection against flooding and the reintroduction of keystone species has ecosystem wide benefits (see the example of the wolf here).

The rewilded landscapes will provide opportunities for recreation and tourism, reinvigorating deprived areas and providing sustainable, meaningful employment. I am convinced as a species we have lost our fundamental connection to, and appreciation of, nature and believe that the restoration of large areas to 'wild' land will go a long way to reconnecting us. Also because rewilding is so passive, once the initial recovery has begun, the tangible and more spiritual benefits can be attained for limited levels of investment.

The UK is a crowded little island and rewilding on the scale expected in parts of Europe will never be realistic, but it should seriously be considered for large parts of our landscape. Imagine a return of the Caledonian forest across huge areas of the Highlands or Oak and mixed woodland carpeting the moors and heaths of South West England and the North. I wholeheartedly believe our country would be a better place for it.

References

Enserink, M. and Vogel, G. (2006) "The carnivore comeback." Science. 314: 746-749

Halada, L. Evans, D. Romao, C. and Petersen, J-E. (2011) "Which habitats of European importance depend on agricultural practices?". Biodiversity and Conservation. 20 (11): 2365-78.

Keenleyside C. and Tucker G. (2010) "Farmland abandonment in the EU: an assessment of trends and prospects. London. WWF and IEEP. 97pp.

Navarro, L. and Pereira, M. (2012) "Rewilding Abandoned Landscapes in Europe". Ecosystems. 15 900-912

Pereira, HM., Leadley, PW., Proenca, V., Alkemade, R., Scharlemann, JPW., Fernandez-Manjarres, FP., Araujo, MB., Balvanera, P., Biggs, R., Cheung, WWL., Chini, L., Cooper, HD., Gilman, E., Guenette, S., Hurtt GC., Huntingdon, HP., Mace, GM., Oberdorff, T., Revenga, C., Rodrigues, P., Scholes, R., Sumaila, UR. and Walpole, M. (2010) "Scenarios for global biodiversity in the 21st century" Science. 330 1496-501. 

Russo, D. (2006) "Effects of land abandonment on animal species in Europe: conservation and management implications" Integrated assessment of vulnerable ecosystems under global change in the EU. Project report.

The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH)

I have made a start on some reading ahead of starting my MSc in September. I am interested in rewilding as an approach to conservation ecology. A paradigm I am currently exploring is the potential for rewilding to successfully manage abandoned farmland in Europe (blog to follow soon) and a concept that crops up in this reading is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). I felt this interesting concept deserved its own post to discuss it ahead of a longer post on rewilding in Europe to follow.

Policy makers and researchers who argue that rewilding will have negative impacts on biodiversity cite the IDH in support of their arguments, Navarro and Pereira, (2012). The theory states that biological diversity is highest in extensively managed ecosystems where disturbance factors are moderate, Wilkinson (1999).

Essentially ecosystems are prevented from reaching communities at both ends of their succession scale (plagioclimax) therefore limiting interspecific competition and promoting biodiversity. The organisms that outcompete at the start and end of succession; pioneers and climax species, cannot dominate the system so diversity is higher. Ecologists who have supported IDH and carried out empirical tests predicted a humped relationship between species diversity and disturbance factors (Figure 1). In some studies such a relationship was indeed observed.

Figure 1 - Humped relationship between diversity and disturbance

However there is criticism of IDH. Fox (2013) states that in the vast majority of empirical cases the relationship predicted in figure 1 is not observed. It is argued that abundance of species will be impacted by moderate disturbance but not the mechanisms of interaction between species. If anything the levels of competition required between species in order to impact their populations will be reduced as a result of smaller populations and less genetic diversity, ultimately impacting communities capacity to adapt.


References

Fox, J. (2013) "The intermediate disturbance hypothesis should be abandoned". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 28 (2) 86-92

Navarro, L. and Pereira, M. (2012) "Rewilding Abandoned Landscapes in Europe". Ecosystems. 15 900-912

Wilkinson, DM. (1999) "The disturbing history of intermediate disturbance". Oikos. 84 145-147.

London Wetland Centre - 28th May

Today I visited the London Wetland Centre for the first time, a nature reserve managed by the Wildfowl and Wetlands trust. It is a beautiful spot, a real oasis in the city, there were a lot of families out enjoying the sunshine. I arrived and walked the 'West route' over to the 'Wildside' hide.

Just below the hide was a Lapwing which I watched for a good hour, it was feeding in a shallow pool and chasing away starlings from a nearby group that came near. At one point a Grey Heron landed close and the scrappy little Lapwing chased that away as well! It wasn't until I watched it for 15 minutes that I realised that there were 3 chicks feeding nearby, it was a very protective parent. I got a snap of it but without a decent camera I am afraid none of my photos are very good. The current UK population is 140'000 pairs. Unfortunately they are on the RSPB redlist with a 50% reduction in their population since 1985 mainly due to habitat loss through changing farming practices. I know from Dad that some have nested in the fens near Thorney in recent years, the move to planting Winter cereals has meant that often the cover is too dense for them to nest in the Spring.

Lapwing feeding, the chicks were too hidden to get a clear photo

Nearby there were also a pair of Great Crested Grebe (5'300 adults) and a Common Tern (12'00 pairs) surrounded by Tufted Ducks. 

A pair of Great Crested Grebe (they were quite far away...)

Below is a summary of all the species and numbers I was able to spot.

Trees for Life, rewilding and hope for the future

I have previously blogged about 'rewilding'. 'Rewilding' is the large scale restoration of ecosystems and natural processes driven in part by the reintroduction of missing species. It takes a holistic view of ecosystem management and an appreciation that for ecosystems to thrive natural processes such as predation and grazing must be allowed to occur without interference. Think of it as re-establishing what was lost and then leaving nature to get on with things, essentially hitting the reset button on habitats that have been degraded and fragmented by human processes. Rewilding as a paradigm has been gaining support in Europe for the past 7 years or so (http://www.rewildingeurope.com/).

The largest rewilding effort in the UK is fronted by the Trees for Life charity, co-ordinated by Alan Watson Featherstone (it is well worth following his blog). Following the last glacial maximum at the beginning of the Holocene and the cooler climate that followed Scots Pine was the most dominant species to recolonise the land left by the retreating glaciers, well adapted to the cool, dry conditions of the time.

This formed the foundation of the Caledonian forest, a complex, multi layered habitat of Pine, Rowan, Juniper, Aspen and Oak. Growing on and beneath these majestic species are a multitude of lichens and mosses. The Caledonian forest supported boar, wolves, lynx, pine marten, red squirrels, deer, wildcats and a multitude of bird and insect species. It is sometimes referred to as Britain's rain forest. Through the Holocene the climate continued to warm and Oak woodland became the climax habitat of much of the UK. The Caledonian forest retreated north occupying the glens of the Scottish Highlands. 2000 years BP the Caledonian forest of the Highlands was the Western most bastion of the mighty Boreal forest. Since then continued warming, deforestation and overgrazing has reduced the Caledonian forest to a shadow of its former self.

The Scottish Crossbill - Just one of the amazing species supported by Caledonian Forest

In 2008 Trees for Life purchased the Dundreggan estate, a 10'000 acre site of wilderness. However since the early 90s volunteers have worked towards their mission statement of restoring the Caledonian forest to the Scottish Highlands.

The core area of Trees for Life's work

The principle is that by creating a corridor of suitable habitat between the fragmented remnants of Caledonian forest and reintroducing lost species the ecosystem's natural processes will then begin to dominate and self regulate. This presentation contains good information on some of the methods involved and also the very real impacts. I will continue to blog about the ecology and progress of Trees for life. To finish I will leave you with a vision for the future of the Highlands.

A productive day...

I was pretty happy when I saw the Goldcrest this morning but I can add two more species to my productive day; while walking to invigilate an exam in the gym I saw a Green Woodpecker on the lawn surrounding the duck pond. I think it was a male as its 'moustache' had a red centre.

Then on the walk home I took the top path through the trees as you enter Crystal Palace Park. I'd seen a great tit feeding some juveniles here last week and it is often a good spot to hear a Song Thrush. I was stopped by a melodic warble and took a few steps off the path. Peering into the foliage I saw something new to me, a quick look on my RSPB app confirmed it was a Blackcap. Again this was a male, with a black, rather than terracotta cap. The Blackcap is a Summer visitor although more and more are wintering in the UK as well. I find it hard to differentiate the songs of warblers so I was pleased to actually sight him and get a confirmed identification.

Having listened to both the Robin and Blackcap at home I'd say that the Blackcap is deeper in its song, somewhere between a Robin and a Blackbird but with less trilling than the latter.

What a day then! Britain's smallest bird, our largest (and I think prettiest) woodpecker and a new warbler.

Britain's smallest bird

I had a notable sighting on my walk in to work this morning. Whilst coming up Crystal Palace Park Road a tiny shape flew in front of me and stopped on a branch perhaps 3 feet away. I tried to get a photo but it flew off before I could focus on it. It was not a bird I had seen in the flesh before but one that I instantly recognised.

The Goldcrest is Britain's smallest bird species, the one I saw couldn't have been much bigger than 7cm. They have a very distinctive yellow cap on their heads which shows more orange when the male is displaying. Their little beaks are perfect for picking insects, their main food, out of pine needles. Found predominantly in coniferous woodland they also inhabit mature gardens and mixed woods. They are relatively common (650-700 thousand pairs) and numbers have increased. Milder winters help their population a lot.

Since seeing it I have listened to it's song in the hope that I will be able to pick it out on my walk in. It is a thin rising 'tee-lee-dee, tee-lee-dee, tee-lee-dee' which I reckon I could identify if I heard in the wild now. Its call is a very delicate 'seeeee'. A really special moment that has put me in a good mood all day.

The Goldcrest - Britain's smallest bird :-)

Dulwich Wood - 8th May

Ask my family to describe my personality in 5 words and one they might come up with is obsessive. When I get something into my head it is often all I can think about. At the moment that's birdsong! I am hoping for a career in ecology once I have completed my Master's degree and species identification is an important field skill to have, combine that with my obsessive nature and you get the current state of play, annoying Inna with recordings of bird song and stopping to I.D. every call I hear.

I'm lucky enough to have free Friday afternoons on my current timetable and spent some time this afternoon in Dulwich Wood. The woodland is privately owned by the Dulwich estate and is what remains of a once large mixed woodland covering much of what is now South London. It is an amazing place, you can completely forget you are in the city once you step inside.

Dulwich Wood - prettier that the entrance suggests

I found myself a quiet corner and spent 30 minutes listening and looking. This is a breakdown of what I was able to I.D. (click on the links to hear their calls)

Chiffchaff - once you have learned this little fella's call it is instantly recognisable. It is a series of little 'zips' and 'zaps' in almost perfect 1-2-3 time. You could waltz to it! They look VERY similar to Willow Warblers and you can only really differentiate them by their call.

Blue tit - one of my favourites, a loud 'meep' followed by rapid little couplets for about 3 seconds. Today's was a bit shy and was cutting his song short, not sure what that means in terms of behaviour. Their cackling call is also very distinct.

Great tit - imagine a squeeky bicycle pump and you are not far off. They add happy little backing vocals to the noisier Robins and Blackbirds.

Chaffinch - another beauty, rapidly descending trills finishing with a flourish.

Blackbird - a melodic warble, again with a flourish at the end. One of the most common songs you will hear.

Ring necked parakeet - not pretty, in fact a bloody racket. Nice to look at though...

Robin - if the Chiffchaff is a stickler for keeping in time the Robin is more free-form jazz. Melodic and lyrical, once you've got it pegged it is one you'll hear a lot of. Their little 'tic-tic-tic' call is very reptilian.

Song Thrush - masters of improvisation. Individuals have up to '100' different phrases and will repeat them in little groups of 3-5. The song carries a long way. Another favourite.

Wood pigeon - the baritone section!

Jay - you'll hear him more than you see him. A favourite of mine, just not to listen to.

Add to this various other subtle calls and songs which I am not yet talented enough to identify and you have got a diverse little spot. The Greater London National Park is a movement aiming to make one of the most bio diverse Urban environments in the UK a recognised national park, not a bad idea if you ask me.

Dulwich Wood Panorama - one of my favourite spots in London

Coots and Geese in Crystal Palace Park

While my wife and I miss living in Balham, one of the best things about living in Penge (apart from the Pawleyne Arms) is the proximity to Crystal Palace Park. It forms the core of most of my running routes and is a haven of green space and wildlife.

Regular sights that make me smile are:

• Mallards
• Moorhens
• Tufted ducks
• Great Crested Grebe
• Ring necked parakeets (noisy buggers)
• Jays - my favourite
• Sparrows
• Starlings
• Canada geese
• Great Tits and Blue Tits
• Robins
• Grey Squirrels
• Rats (don't make me smile so much but I don't begrudge them their place!)

With the arrival of Spring I have seen a couple of things that I thought worthy of a special mention. First off is Mr and Mrs Egyptian Goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus). When I first saw this pair I incorrectly identified them as Shelducks.

Egyptian Goose (beautiful until he opens his mouth)

According to the RSPB there are approximately 1000 of these in the UK. They are very striking and stand out from the Canada Geese that are more abundant in Crystal Palace. They are native to Africa and are thought to have been introduced as ornamental species in the 1700s. The most established population is in Norfolk but their range is spreading. They are a resident species. I don't know where these two have come from or if there are any more in London. As I have said they are very beautiful birds but have one of the least appealing calls of any goose I have heard!

About a month ago Inna and I were walking through the park and came across a gaggle of people staring at something in the pond. We took a look and saw a pair of Coots (Fulica atra) feeding their chicks. This pair had built their nest in the open water, as coots will do, and the female was sat on the nest with the chicks. They were only very tiny and lacked mobility. Dad was busy patrolling the pond gathering food and returning to feed the chicks, this only happens for the first 4-5 days of their lives. I checked in on them for the next couple of days and Dad was still tirelessly working the pond.

Coots lay 5-7 eggs in a go and incubation takes about 21 days. Pairs can have several clutches in a Summer so I'll be keeping my eyes peeled for more. I was running home last night and thought I would see how they are getting on. Both chicks were still alive and had grown considerably. They were both swimming around with the parents and feeding themselves. They hadn't quite got the hang of dipping yet and couldn't stay under for very long at all. London is crammed with wildlife, you just have to keep your eyes peeled and appreciate what is there.

Coot chick with Dad

Update on my options!

Having had another look at the course handbook I am having to rethink my initial ideas for the modules that I want to take. Also I am beginning to seriously consider a career in ecological consultancy. This new list of choices therefore reflects this in terms of the knowledge and skills I will be acquiring.

Semester 1

• Core modules - The changing water cycle
• Optional modules - Introduction to GIS and Sustainable management of biological resources: Ecosystem and Biodiversity conservation

Semester 2

• Core modules - GIS research methods field trip and Global climate and environmental change
• Optional modules - Ecological and environmental assessment

Details of the modules found here.

Thinking about my options...

I am very excited about going back to full time study next year. Consequently I find myself visiting the course website when I have 10 minutes downtime! I've been thinking about the modules on offer and where I'd like to go in terms of research interests. I'm settling on the following:

Core Modules

Global Climate and Environmental Change
This module analyses the climate change debate and its scientific basis, with regional case studies of environmental change and its feedbacks to climate change. Students learn about palaeoenvironmental and contemporary climate and environmental change and how physical geography techniques can help quantify and understand these changes. Students learn how to work with climate data and simple models, to analyse the potential impacts of environmental change on a range of sectors including agriculture, forestry, water resources and human health, and discuss potential mitigation and adaptation options.


The Changing Water Cycle
This new module draws on the innovative work ongoing in the Department’s new flagship Centre for Landscape and Climate Research to examine critical
issues pertaining to ecohydrological processes in the landscape and the impacts of human land use and global climate change therein. Methodological (including modelling) and policy issues are also explored with reference to spatial ecohydrology.


Research Design and Methods in Geography
Focuses on the acquisition of skills for formulating research proposals, literature reviews, data collection and the communication of research ideas. Prepares for a successful dissertation.

Optional Modules

Water Quality Processes and Management

This module examines the principal natural and anthropogenic factors controlling the quality of surface and groundwater systems. A core objective is to facilitate an understanding of process as a key to establishing effective and sustainable water quality management strategies.

Ecological and Environmental Assessment

This module introduces students to practical ecological (e.g. phase one habitat) survey skills, environmental risk and impact assessment techniques, in the context of UK legislative/planning requirements.

Biodiversity Conservation and Global Change: Tropical East Africa (field trip)

You will learn about East African geology, landscapes and ecosystems, and the extent and nature of human interactions within them over the past 50,000 years up to the 21st century. You will learn to understand the ecological principles which underpin the ecology of tropical savannahs, forests, freshwaters and alkaline waters. This knowledge will be integrated into sustainable management plans, which incorporate indigenous livelihoods. The module will take place for ten field days in late April/ early May, at locations in the Rift Valley Kenya. It will be largely under canvas, in a safari camp that is already maintained by the Department of Biology for its Rift Valley Lakes research.

Sustainable Management of Biological Resources: Ecosystem and Biodiversity Conservation

This module examines biological resources and the various approaches to biodiversity evaluation. The principal factors involved in decline and loss of biological diversity are analysed and the biological and ecological principles underlying conservation and management explored. The module also emphasises the essential role of ecosystem services in supporting human livelihoods and the ways in which our societies must adjust lifestyles to ensure the sustainable maintenance of these services.

I will probably change my mind though!

Rewilding - An approach to ecosystem management

'Rewilding' is an ecological concept that is relatively new to me and something that I am increasingly interested in. 'Rewilding' is the large scale restoration of ecosystems and natural processes driven in part by the reintroduction of missing species. Between now and beginning my Master's in September I hope to explore this concept further.

Moorhouse and Sandom (2015) present the example of the water vole, Arvicola amphibius, to outline various approaches to conservation. The water vole thrived in Britain since the start of the Holocene but

"since the 1930s the national population has been reduced to (much) less than 2% of its original size" - (Moorhouse and Sandom, 2015, p.45).

Arvicola amphibius - The Water Vole (take from http://www.arkive.org/water-vole/arvicola-terrestris/)

This rapid reduction in population size has mainly been a result of habitat loss due to agriculture and predation by the American mink, an introduced species.

3 approaches to managing the water vole present themselves. Option 1 would be to do nothing, allowing populations to become restricted to the few wetlands remaining that can protect them from predation. Option 2 would be to control mink populations coupled with reintroduction (the approach that Britain has taken). Finally option 3 would be to completely eradicate the American mink, restoration of all lost habitats and targeted water vole reintroductions.

Moorhouse and Sandom (2015) go on to say that approaches such as option 3 will always mean that the natural state has been irrevocably lost and that the best we can do is create a new state that is more functionally natural. They raise an interesting question on where the line can be drawn with regard to Britain's 'natural species'.

Rather than such a species orientated approach 'rewilding' asks what natural processes (migration, predation, flood prevention etc.) have been lost and whether this has been the result of human intervention. Moorhouse and Sandom (2015) outline the reintroduction of a top predator, the wolf, as an example of how this concept may work. 

Step 1 - Reintroduce top predator

Step 2 - Herbivory reduced

Step 3 - Increased woodland regeneration

Step 4 - Improved beaver habitat

Step 5 - Increased wetland availability

Step 6 - Improved water vole habitat

Of course there will be risks and objections to such schemes and natural feedback mechanisms will never allow such a smooth transition between steps but as a holistic approach to ecosystem conservation rewilding is one that intrigues me. I have ordered 'Feral' by George Monbiot and will continue to explore rewilding as an approach to conservation.

Some links to get me started:

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/19/-sp-rewilding-large-species-britain-wolves-bears
http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/rewilding
http://www.monbiot.com/2013/05/27/a-manifesto-for-rewilding-the-world/
http://www.rewildingeurope.com/

References

Moorhouse, T.P. and Sandom, C.J. (2015) Conservation and the problem with 'natural' - does rewilding hold the answer? Geography. 100 (1), p.45-50.

All change

I have been a secondary school geography teacher for four years. I have worked in London for all of that time in both state and private schools. Now I have decided to leave the profession and pursue an academic career. Any guilt or misgivings I have been feeling about such a big change I have managed to assuage with the thought that I have given it a good go. 

Whilst teaching has been incredibly rewarding I have an academic itch to scratch. I am sure I am not alone in feeling that I didn't make the most of my time during my undergraduate degree. I achieved a good result but didn't appreciate the opportunities. Since becoming a teacher I have fallen back in love with my subject and remembered what it is that made me choose to study Geography at University. Now I want to leave my own mark on a subject that means so much to me.

In September 2015 I will begin an MSc in Global Environmental Change at the University of Leicester. My main research interests are atmospheric change and feedback in ecosystems, in particular Arctic ecosystems. I am very much at a junction in my life, this blog will track the next stretch.